Care of the Patient with Gallbladder, Liver, Biliary Tract or Exocrine Pancreatic Disorder: Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations


This chapter discusses the laboratory and diagnostic examinations that are commonly used to diagnose and monitor
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About Care of the Patient with Gallbladder, Liver, Biliary Tract or Exocrine Pancreatic Disorder: Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations
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Slide1Chapter 6 Chapter 6 Care of the Patient with a Gallbladder, Liver, Biliary Tract, or Exocrine Pancreatic Disorder Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
Slide2Slide 2Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations • Serum bilirubin test • Liver enzyme tests • Serum protein test • Oral cholecystography (gallbladder series) • Intravenous cholangiography (IV cholangiogram) • Operative cholangiography • T-tube cholangiogram • Ultrasound of the liver, gallbladder, and biliary system • Gallbladder scanning • Liver biopsy • Liver scanning
Slide3Slide 3Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations (continued) • Blood ammonia • Hepatitis virus studies • Serum amylase test • Urine amylase test • Ultrasound of pancreas • Computerized tomography of the abdomen • Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography of the pancreatic duct (ERCP)
Slide4Slide 4Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis Etiology/pathophysiology • Chronic, degenerative disease of the liver • Scar tissue restricts the flow of blood to the liver • Types of cirrhosis Laennec’s cirrhosis Postnecrotic cirrhosis Primary biliary cirrhosis Secondary biliary cirrhosis
Slide5Slide 5Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis (continued) Etiology/pathophysiology (continued) • Alteration of liver function Reduced ability to metabolize albumin Obstruction of portal vein Increased pressure in veins that drain GI tract • Complications Portal hypertension Ascites Esophageal varices Hepatic encephalopathy
Slide6Slide 6Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis (continued) Clinical manifestations/assessment • Early stages Abdominal pain Liver is firm and easy to palpate • Late stages Dyspepsia Changes in bowel habits Nausea and vomiting Gradual weight loss
Slide7Slide 7Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis (continued) Clinical manifestations/assessment (continued) • Late stages (continued) Ascites Enlarged spleen Spider angiomas Anemia Bleeding tendencies Epistaxis
Slide8Slide 8Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis (continued) Clinical manifestations/assessment (continued) • Late stages (continued) Purpura Hematuria Bleeding gums Jaundice Disorientation
Slide9Slide 9Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Figure 6-2 Figure 6-2 Systemic clinical manifestations of liver cirrhosis. (From Lewis, S.M., Heitkemper, M.M., Dirksen, S.R. [2007]. Medical-surgical nursing: assessment and management of clinical problems. [7 th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
Slide10Slide 10Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis (continued) Medical management/nursing interventions • Pharmacological management Antiemetics o Benadryl and Dramamine o Contraindicated: Vistaril, Compazine, and Atarax • Eliminate the cause Alcohol Hepatotoxins Environmental exposure to harmful chemicals
Slide11Slide 11Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis (continued) Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Diet Well-balanced High in calories Moderate in protein Low in fat Low in sodium Supplemental vitamins and folic acid
Slide12Slide 12Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis (continued) Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Treatment of complications Ascites o Bed rest o Strict I&O o Restrict fluids and sodium o Diuretics: Aldactone, Lasix, HCTZ o Vitamins K, C, and folic acid supplements o LeVeen peritoneal-jugular shunt o Paracentesis
Slide13Slide 13Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Figure 6-3 Figure 6-3 LeVeen continuous peritoneal jugular shunt. (From Beare, P.G., Myers, J.L. [1998]. Adult health nursing. [3 rd ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
Slide14Slide 14Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis (continued) Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Treatment of complications (continued) Ruptured esophageal varices o Maintain airway; establish IV o Vasopressin drip to control bleeding o Sengstaken-Blakemore tube o Endoscopic sclerotherapy o Portacaval shunt o Blood transfusion
Slide15Slide 15Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis (continued) Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Treatment of complications (continued) Hepatic encephalopathy o Decrease protein in diet o Avoid drugs that are detoxified by the liver o Lactulose o Neomycin
Slide16Slide 16Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver cancer Etiology and pathology • Hepatocellular carcinoma most commonly seen • Cirrhosis of the liver and hepatitis C and B are also elevated risk factors • In the United States liver cancer is seen more in people over age 40 • Metastatic carcinoma of the liver is seen more than primary liver cancer
Slide17Slide 17Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver cancer Clinical manifestations • Hepatomegaly • Weight loss • Peripheral edema • Ascites • Portal hypertension • Dull epigastric pain • Jaundice • Anorexia
Slide18Slide 18Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver cancer Diagnostic tests • Liver scan • Ultrasound • CT scan • Magnetic resonance imaging • ERCP • Liver biopsy
Slide19Slide 19Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver cancer Medical management/nursing interventions • Palliative care • Surgery • Chemotherapy
Slide20Slide 20Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis Etiology/pathophysiology • Inflammation of the liver resulting from several types of viral agents or exposure to toxic substances • Hepatitis A Most common Oral-fecal transmission
Slide21Slide 21Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis (continued) Etiology/pathophysiology (continued) • Hepatitis B Transmission by contaminated serum; blood transfusion, contaminated needles, dialysis, or direct contact with infected body fluids • Hepatitis C Transmitted through contaminated needles and blood transfusions
Slide22Slide 22Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis (continued) Etiology/pathophysiology (continued) • Hepatitis D Co-infection with hepatitis B • Hepatitis E Fecal contamination of water Rare in the United States; usually in developing countries
Slide23Slide 23Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis (continued) Clinical manifestations/assessment • General malaise • Aching muscles • Photophobia • Headaches • Chills • Abdominal pain • Dyspepsia • Nausea
Slide24Slide 24Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis (continued) Clinical manifestations/assessment (continued) • Diarrhea/constipation • Pruritus • Hepatomegaly • Enlarged lymph nodes • Weight loss • Jaundice • Dark amber urine • Clay-colored stools
Slide25Slide 25Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Figure 6-5 Figure 6-5 Severe jaundice. (From Kamal, A., Brockelhurst, J.C. [1991]. Color atlas of geriatric medicine. [3 rd ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book—Europe.)
Slide26Slide 26Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis (continued) Medical management/nursing interventions • Treat symptoms • Small, frequent meals Low-fat, high-carbohydrate • IV fluids for dehydration • Vitamin C, vitamin B–complex, vitamin K • Avoid unnecessary medications, especially sedatives
Slide27Slide 27Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis (continued) Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Gamma globulin or immune serum globulin • Hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG) Should be given to anyone exposed to hepatitis B • Hepatitis B vaccine Should be given to people identified as high risk for developing hepatitis B
Slide28Slide 28Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver abscesses Etiology/pathophysiology • May be single or multiple • Abscess forms in the liver due to invading bacteria
Slide29Slide 29Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver abscesses (continued) Clinical manifestations/assessment • Fever • Chills • Abdominal pain and tenderness in the right upper quadrant • Hepatomegaly • Jaundice • Anemia
Slide30Slide 30Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver abscesses (continued) Diagnostic tests • Radiograph • Ultrasound • CT scan • Liver scan Medical management/nursing interventions • IV antibiotic therapy • Percutaneous drainage of liver abscess • Open surgical drainage
Slide31Slide 31Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis Etiology/pathophysiology • An obstruction, gallstone, or tumor prevents bile from leaving the gallbladder, and the trapped bile acts as an irritant, causing inflammation • Risk factors Female; American Indian or white; obesity; pregnancy; diabetes; multiparous women; use of birth control
Slide32Slide 32Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Figure 6-6 Figure 6-6 Common sites of gallstones. ( from Monahan, F.D., et al. [2007]. Phipps’ medical-surgical nursing: health and illness perspectives. [8th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby. )
Slide33Slide 33Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis (continued) Clinical manifestations/assessment • Indigestion after eating foods high in fat • Severe, colicky pain in the right upper quadrant • Anorexia • Nausea and vomiting • Flatulence • Increased heart and respiratory rates • Diaphoresis
Slide34Slide 34Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis (continued) Clinical manifestations/assessment (continued) • Low-grade fever • Elevated WBC • Mild jaundice • Steatorrhea (fatty stool) • Dark amber urine
Slide35Slide 35Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis (continued) Medical management/nursing interventions • Mild attacks Pharmacological management o Antispasmodic and analgesic medications o Antibiotics Bed rest NG tube to suction NPO IV fluids Dietary recommendations: Avoid spicy foods when allowed PO intake
Slide36Slide 36Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis (continued) Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Lithotripsy • Cholecystectomy Laparoscopic Open
Slide37Slide 37Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Pancreatitis Etiology/pathophysiology • Inflammation of the pancreas Acute or chronic • Predisposing factors Alcohol Trauma Infectious disease Certain drugs
Slide38Slide 38Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Pancreatitis (continued) Clinical manifestations/assessment • Abdominal pain • Anorexia; nausea and vomiting • Malaise • Low-grade fever • Jaundice • Weight loss • Steatorrhea • Tachycardia
Slide39Slide 39Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Pancreatitis (continued) Medical management/nursing interventions • Pharmacological management Antiemetics Analgesics Anticholinergics Antacids • NPO • IV fluids • NG tube • Hyperalimentation
Slide40Slide 40Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cancer of the pancreas Etiology/pathophysiology • Unknown • Risk factors Cigarette smoking; exposure to chemical carcinogens; diabetes mellitus; pancreatitis; diet high in meat, fat, and coffee • May be metastasis from the lung, stomach, duodenum, or common bile duct (CBD) • May live only 4 to 8 months after diagnosis
Slide41Slide 41Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cancer of the pancreas (continued) Clinical manifestations/assessment • Anorexia • Fatigue • Nausea and flatulence • Change in stools • Steady, dull, aching pain in the epigastric area • Weight loss • Jaundice • Onset of diabetes mellitus
Slide42Slide 42Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cancer of the pancreas (continued) Medical management/nursing interventions • Surgery Whipple procedure Total pancreatectomy with resection of parts of the GI tract • Chemotherapy • Radiation
Slide43Slide 43Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Figure 6-9 Figure 6-9 Whipple’s procedure, or radical pancreaticoduodenectomy. (From Lewis, S.M., Heitkemper, M.M., Dirksen, S.R. [2007]. Medical-surgical nursing: assessment and management of clinical problems. [7 th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
Slide44Slide 44Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Nursing Process Nursing Process • Nursing diagnoses Activity intolerance Breathing pattern, ineffective Fluid volume, deficient Home maintenance, impaired Injury, risk for Knowledge, deficient Noncompliance Nutrition, imbalanced, less than body requirements Pain, acute/chronic Powerlessness Skin integrity, impaired Thought processes, disturbed