Care of the Patient with Gallbladder, Liver, Biliary Tract or Exocrine Pancreatic Disorder: Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations

Care of the Patient with Gallbladder, Liver, Biliary Tract or Exocrine Pancreatic Disorder: Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations
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This chapter discusses the laboratory and diagnostic examinations that are commonly used to diagnose and monitor

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Slide1Chapter 6 Chapter  6 Care of the Patient with a Gallbladder, Liver, Biliary Tract, or Exocrine Pancreatic Disorder Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.

Slide2Slide 2Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations • Serum bilirubin test • Liver enzyme tests • Serum protein test • Oral cholecystography (gallbladder series) • Intravenous cholangiography (IV cholangiogram) • Operative cholangiography • T-tube cholangiogram • Ultrasound of the liver, gallbladder, and biliary system • Gallbladder scanning • Liver biopsy • Liver scanning

Slide3Slide 3Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations Laboratory and Diagnostic Examinations (continued) • Blood ammonia • Hepatitis virus studies • Serum amylase test • Urine amylase test • Ultrasound of pancreas • Computerized tomography of the abdomen • Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography of the pancreatic duct (ERCP)

Slide4Slide 4Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis  Etiology/pathophysiology • Chronic, degenerative disease of the liver • Scar tissue restricts the flow of blood to the liver • Types of cirrhosis  Laennec’s cirrhosis  Postnecrotic cirrhosis  Primary biliary cirrhosis  Secondary biliary cirrhosis

Slide5Slide 5Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis  (continued)  Etiology/pathophysiology  (continued) • Alteration of liver function  Reduced ability to metabolize albumin  Obstruction of portal vein  Increased pressure in veins that drain GI tract • Complications  Portal hypertension  Ascites  Esophageal varices  Hepatic encephalopathy

Slide6Slide 6Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis  (continued)  Clinical manifestations/assessment • Early stages  Abdominal pain  Liver is firm and easy to palpate • Late stages  Dyspepsia  Changes in bowel habits  Nausea and vomiting  Gradual weight loss

Slide7Slide 7Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis  (continued)  Clinical manifestations/assessment  (continued) • Late stages  (continued)  Ascites  Enlarged spleen  Spider angiomas  Anemia  Bleeding tendencies  Epistaxis

Slide8Slide 8Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis  (continued)  Clinical manifestations/assessment  (continued) • Late stages  (continued)  Purpura  Hematuria  Bleeding gums  Jaundice  Disorientation

Slide9Slide 9Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Figure 6-2 Figure 6-2 Systemic clinical manifestations of liver cirrhosis. (From Lewis, S.M., Heitkemper, M.M., Dirksen, S.R. [2007].  Medical-surgical nursing: assessment and management of clinical problems.  [7 th  ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)

Slide10Slide 10Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis  (continued)  Medical management/nursing interventions • Pharmacological management  Antiemetics o Benadryl and Dramamine o Contraindicated: Vistaril, Compazine, and Atarax • Eliminate the cause  Alcohol  Hepatotoxins  Environmental exposure to harmful chemicals

Slide11Slide 11Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis  (continued)  Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Diet  Well-balanced  High in calories  Moderate in protein  Low in fat  Low in sodium  Supplemental vitamins and folic acid

Slide12Slide 12Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis  (continued)  Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Treatment of complications  Ascites o Bed rest o Strict I&O o Restrict fluids and sodium o Diuretics:  Aldactone, Lasix, HCTZ o Vitamins K, C, and folic acid supplements o LeVeen peritoneal-jugular shunt o Paracentesis

Slide13Slide 13Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Figure 6-3 Figure 6-3 LeVeen continuous peritoneal jugular shunt. (From Beare, P.G., Myers, J.L. [1998].  Adult health nursing.  [3 rd  ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)

Slide14Slide 14Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis  (continued)  Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Treatment of complications  (continued)  Ruptured esophageal varices o Maintain airway; establish IV o Vasopressin drip to control bleeding o Sengstaken-Blakemore tube o Endoscopic sclerotherapy o Portacaval shunt o Blood transfusion

Slide15Slide 15Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cirrhosis  (continued)  Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Treatment of complications  (continued)  Hepatic encephalopathy o Decrease protein in diet o Avoid drugs that are detoxified by the liver o Lactulose o Neomycin

Slide16Slide 16Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver cancer  Etiology and pathology • Hepatocellular carcinoma most commonly seen • Cirrhosis of the liver and hepatitis C and B are also elevated risk factors • In the United States liver cancer is seen more in people over age 40 • Metastatic carcinoma of the liver is seen more than primary liver cancer

Slide17Slide 17Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver cancer  Clinical manifestations • Hepatomegaly • Weight loss • Peripheral edema • Ascites • Portal hypertension • Dull epigastric pain • Jaundice • Anorexia

Slide18Slide 18Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver cancer  Diagnostic tests • Liver scan • Ultrasound • CT scan • Magnetic resonance imaging • ERCP • Liver biopsy

Slide19Slide 19Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver cancer  Medical management/nursing interventions • Palliative care • Surgery • Chemotherapy

Slide20Slide 20Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis  Etiology/pathophysiology • Inflammation of the liver resulting from several types of viral agents or exposure to toxic substances • Hepatitis A  Most common  Oral-fecal transmission

Slide21Slide 21Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis  (continued)  Etiology/pathophysiology  (continued) • Hepatitis B  Transmission by contaminated serum; blood transfusion, contaminated needles, dialysis, or direct contact with infected body fluids • Hepatitis C  Transmitted through contaminated needles and blood transfusions

Slide22Slide 22Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis  (continued)  Etiology/pathophysiology  (continued) • Hepatitis D  Co-infection with hepatitis B • Hepatitis E  Fecal contamination of water  Rare in the United States; usually in developing countries

Slide23Slide 23Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis  (continued)  Clinical manifestations/assessment • General malaise • Aching muscles • Photophobia • Headaches • Chills • Abdominal pain • Dyspepsia • Nausea

Slide24Slide 24Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis  (continued)  Clinical manifestations/assessment  (continued) • Diarrhea/constipation • Pruritus • Hepatomegaly • Enlarged lymph nodes • Weight loss • Jaundice • Dark amber urine • Clay-colored stools

Slide25Slide 25Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Figure 6-5 Figure 6-5 Severe jaundice. (From Kamal, A., Brockelhurst, J.C. [1991].  Color atlas of geriatric medicine.  [3 rd  ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book—Europe.)

Slide26Slide 26Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis  (continued)  Medical management/nursing interventions • Treat symptoms • Small, frequent meals  Low-fat, high-carbohydrate • IV fluids for dehydration • Vitamin C, vitamin B–complex, vitamin K • Avoid unnecessary medications, especially sedatives

Slide27Slide 27Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Hepatitis  (continued)  Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Gamma globulin or immune serum globulin • Hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG)  Should be given to anyone exposed to hepatitis B • Hepatitis B vaccine  Should be given to people identified as high risk for developing hepatitis B

Slide28Slide 28Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver abscesses  Etiology/pathophysiology • May be single or multiple • Abscess forms in the liver due to invading bacteria

Slide29Slide 29Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver abscesses  (continued)  Clinical manifestations/assessment • Fever • Chills • Abdominal pain and tenderness in the right upper quadrant • Hepatomegaly • Jaundice • Anemia

Slide30Slide 30Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Liver abscesses  (continued)  Diagnostic tests • Radiograph • Ultrasound • CT scan • Liver scan  Medical management/nursing interventions • IV antibiotic therapy • Percutaneous drainage of liver abscess • Open surgical drainage

Slide31Slide 31Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis  Etiology/pathophysiology • An obstruction, gallstone, or tumor prevents bile from leaving the gallbladder, and the trapped bile acts as an irritant, causing inflammation • Risk factors  Female; American Indian or white; obesity; pregnancy; diabetes; multiparous women; use of birth control

Slide32Slide 32Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Figure 6-6 Figure 6-6 Common sites of gallstones. ( from Monahan, F.D., et al. [2007]. Phipps’  medical-surgical nursing: health and illness perspectives.  [8th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby. )

Slide33Slide 33Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis  (continued)  Clinical manifestations/assessment • Indigestion after eating foods high in fat • Severe, colicky pain in the right upper quadrant • Anorexia • Nausea and vomiting • Flatulence • Increased heart and respiratory rates • Diaphoresis

Slide34Slide 34Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis  (continued)  Clinical manifestations/assessment  (continued) • Low-grade fever • Elevated WBC • Mild jaundice • Steatorrhea (fatty stool) • Dark amber urine

Slide35Slide 35Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis  (continued)  Medical management/nursing interventions • Mild attacks  Pharmacological management o Antispasmodic and analgesic medications o Antibiotics  Bed rest  NG tube to suction  NPO  IV fluids  Dietary recommendations:  Avoid spicy foods when allowed PO intake

Slide36Slide 36Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis  (continued)  Medical management/nursing interventions (continued) • Lithotripsy • Cholecystectomy  Laparoscopic  Open

Slide37Slide 37Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Pancreatitis  Etiology/pathophysiology • Inflammation of the pancreas  Acute or chronic • Predisposing factors  Alcohol  Trauma  Infectious disease  Certain drugs

Slide38Slide 38Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Pancreatitis  (continued)  Clinical manifestations/assessment • Abdominal pain • Anorexia; nausea and vomiting • Malaise • Low-grade fever • Jaundice • Weight loss • Steatorrhea • Tachycardia

Slide39Slide 39Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Pancreatitis  (continued)  Medical management/nursing interventions • Pharmacological management  Antiemetics  Analgesics  Anticholinergics  Antacids • NPO • IV fluids • NG tube • Hyperalimentation

Slide40Slide 40Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cancer of the pancreas  Etiology/pathophysiology • Unknown • Risk factors  Cigarette smoking; exposure to chemical carcinogens; diabetes mellitus; pancreatitis; diet high in meat, fat, and coffee • May be metastasis from the lung, stomach, duodenum, or common bile duct (CBD) • May live only 4 to 8 months after diagnosis

Slide41Slide 41Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cancer of the pancreas  (continued)  Clinical manifestations/assessment • Anorexia • Fatigue • Nausea and flatulence • Change in stools • Steady, dull, aching pain in the epigastric area • Weight loss • Jaundice • Onset of diabetes mellitus

Slide42Slide 42Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Disorders of the Liver, Biliary Tract, Gallbladder, and Pancreas • Cancer of the pancreas  (continued)  Medical management/nursing interventions • Surgery  Whipple procedure  Total pancreatectomy with resection of parts of the GI tract • Chemotherapy • Radiation

Slide43Slide 43Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Figure 6-9 Figure 6-9 Whipple’s procedure, or radical pancreaticoduodenectomy. (From Lewis, S.M., Heitkemper, M.M., Dirksen, S.R. [2007].  Medical-surgical nursing: assessment and management of clinical problems.  [7 th  ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)

Slide44Slide 44Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Nursing Process Nursing Process • Nursing diagnoses  Activity intolerance  Breathing pattern, ineffective  Fluid volume, deficient  Home maintenance, impaired  Injury, risk for  Knowledge, deficient  Noncompliance  Nutrition, imbalanced, less than body requirements  Pain, acute/chronic  Powerlessness  Skin integrity, impaired  Thought processes, disturbed

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