The Elements of Chemotherapy: Understanding Drugs, Microbes, and Host

The Elements of Chemotherapy: Understanding Drugs, Microbes, and Host
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Chapter 12 delves deeper into the fundamental elements of chemotherapy, including important terminology such as bacteriostatic (which inhibits growth) and bacteric

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Slide1Chapter 12 Chapter  12 Drugs,  Microbes,  Host  –  The Elements  of  Chemotherapy Drugs,  Microbes,  Host  –  The Elements  of  Chemotherapy

Slide2IntroductionIntroduction Terminology Terminology Bacteriostatic  (inhibits  growth)  vs.  Bactericidal  (kills organisms) Bacteriostatic  (inhibits  growth)  vs.  Bactericidal  (kills organisms) Broad  spectrum  vs.  Narrow  spectrum Broad  spectrum  vs.  Narrow  spectrum Generic  (chemical  composition  of  drug)  vs.  Trade  name (name  given  to  a  drug  by  a  manufacture Generic  (chemical  composition  of  drug)  vs.  Trade  name (name  given  to  a  drug  by  a  manufacture Sources  of  antimicrobial  agents Sources  of  antimicrobial  agents Antibiotics  -  growth  products  of  organisms Antibiotics  -  growth  products  of  organisms Chemosynthetic  agents  -  synthesized  in  a  laboratory Chemosynthetic  agents  -  synthesized  in  a  laboratory Semi-synthetic  agents  -  growth  products  of  organisms that  have  been  chemically  altered  in  laboratory Semi-synthetic  agents  -  growth  products  of  organisms that  have  been  chemically  altered  in  laboratory

Slide3Colony of  Streptomyces ,  one  of  nature’s most  prolific  antibiotic  producers Colony  of  Streptomyces ,  one  of  nature’s most  prolific  antibiotic  producers

Slide4Major targets  of  drugs  acting  on bacterial  cells Major  targets  of  drugs  acting  on bacterial  cells

Slide5Mode of  action  of  antimicrobial  agents: competitive  inhibition Mode  of  action  of  antimicrobial  agents: competitive  inhibition Antibacterial  drugs Antibacterial  drugs Involves  inhibiting synthesis  of  a  critical metabolite Involves  inhibiting synthesis  of  a  critical metabolite Bacteriostatic  in  activity Bacteriostatic  in  activity Examples Examples  Sulfa  -  competition  based on  chemical  similarity between  sulfas  and  PABA which  is  needed  for  folic acid  synthesis;  folic  acid critical  in  protein  and  NA synthesis;  side  effect  = possible  kidney  damage from  crystals  Sulfa  -  competition  based on  chemical  similarity between  sulfas  and  PABA which  is  needed  for  folic acid  synthesis;  folic  acid critical  in  protein  and  NA synthesis;  side  effect  = possible  kidney  damage from  crystals

Slide6Mode of  action  of  antimicrobial  agents: inhibition  of  cell  wall  synthesis Mode  of  action  of  antimicrobial  agents: inhibition  of  cell  wall  synthesis Inhibition  of  cell  wall synthesis Inhibition  of  cell  wall synthesis Interfere  with  one  of multiple  steps  in  CW synthesis Interfere  with  one  of multiple  steps  in  CW synthesis Greater  effect demonstrated  against G(+)  than  G(-)  –  most act  against  synthesis  of peptidoglycan;  many drugs  cannot  penetrate LPS Greater  effect demonstrated  against G(+)  than  G(-)  –  most act  against  synthesis  of peptidoglycan;  many drugs  cannot  penetrate LPS Generally  considered  to be  bactericidal  -  cause lysis Generally  considered  to be  bactericidal  -  cause lysis

Slide7Mode of  action  of  antimicrobial  agents: inhibition  of  cell  wall  synthesis Mode  of  action  of  antimicrobial  agents: inhibition  of  cell  wall  synthesis Drugs  with  beta  lactam  ring  -  prevent cross-linking  in  last  step  of  synthesis Drugs  with  beta  lactam  ring  -  prevent cross-linking  in  last  step  of  synthesis Penicillins Penicillins  Original  penicillins  effective  only against  G(+)  -  esp.  staph  &  strep  Original  penicillins  effective  only against  G(+)  -  esp.  staph  &  strep  Semisynthetic  penicillins developed  to  overcome penicillinase  (beta  lactamase) producing  strains  (i.e.methicillin, oxacillin  &  nafcillin)  and  broaden spectrum  to  G(-)  (i.e.  ampicillin  & carbenicillin)  Semisynthetic  penicillins developed  to  overcome penicillinase  (beta  lactamase) producing  strains  (i.e.methicillin, oxacillin  &  nafcillin)  and  broaden spectrum  to  G(-)  (i.e.  ampicillin  & carbenicillin)  Toxicity  involves  hypersensitivity  Toxicity  involves  hypersensitivity

Slide8Mode of  action  of  antimicrobial  agents: inhibition  of  cell  wall  synthesis Mode  of  action  of  antimicrobial  agents: inhibition  of  cell  wall  synthesis Cephalosporins Cephalosporins  Broad  spectrum  antibiotics  Broad  spectrum  antibiotics  Used  when  individuals  are allergic  to  penicillin  Used  when  individuals  are allergic  to  penicillin  Modifications  to  original  drug increased  spectrum (generations  1,  2,  and  3)  Modifications  to  original  drug increased  spectrum (generations  1,  2,  and  3) Moxalactams Moxalactams Other  drugs  -  interfere  at  other steps Other  drugs  -  interfere  at  other steps  Cycloserine  Cycloserine  Bacitracin  -  used  primarily  as topical  (on  the  skin  -  not  taken internally  because  of  toxicity)  Bacitracin  -  used  primarily  as topical  (on  the  skin  -  not  taken internally  because  of  toxicity)  Vancomycin  Vancomycin

Slide9Mode of  action  of  antimicrobial  agents: Inhibition  of  protein  synthesis Mode  of  action  of  antimicrobial  agents: Inhibition  of  protein  synthesis Inhibit  one  of  many  steps  in  protein  synthesis Inhibit  one  of  many  steps  in  protein  synthesis Examples Examples  Aminoglycosides  -  includes  streptomycin, kanamycin,  tobramycin,  gentamicin, neomycin,  and  amikacin;  causes misreading  of  mRNA;  bactericidal; synergistic  with  penicillins  Aminoglycosides  -  includes  streptomycin, kanamycin,  tobramycin,  gentamicin, neomycin,  and  amikacin;  causes misreading  of  mRNA;  bactericidal; synergistic  with  penicillins  Tetracyclines  -  block  binding  to  tRNA; bacteriostatic;  broad  spectrum  Tetracyclines  -  block  binding  to  tRNA; bacteriostatic;  broad  spectrum  Chloramphenicol  -  prevent  peptide  bond formation;  bacteriostatic;  excellent penetration  of  CNS  (useful  for  treating meningitis);  side  effect  =  aplastic  anemia  Chloramphenicol  -  prevent  peptide  bond formation;  bacteriostatic;  excellent penetration  of  CNS  (useful  for  treating meningitis);  side  effect  =  aplastic  anemia  Erythromycin  -  antimicrobial  spectrum similar  to  penicillin;  used  especially  in penicillin-allergic  Erythromycin  -  antimicrobial  spectrum similar  to  penicillin;  used  especially  in penicillin-allergic  Lincomycin  and  clindamycin  - bacteriostatic;  clindamycin  useful  for anaerobes;  may  cause pseudomembranous  colitis  Lincomycin  and  clindamycin  - bacteriostatic;  clindamycin  useful  for anaerobes;  may  cause pseudomembranous  colitis

Slide10Structure of  aminoglycoside,  tetracycline, chloramphenicol,  and  erythromycin Structure  of  aminoglycoside,  tetracycline, chloramphenicol,  and  erythromycin

Slide11Effects of  drugs  on  bacterial  cell membrane Effects  of  drugs  on  bacterial  cell membrane Act  directly  on  cell membranes  (do  not  need to  enter  cell  to  cause damage) Act  directly  on  cell membranes  (do  not  need to  enter  cell  to  cause damage) Bactericidal  -  produce irreversible  damage  to membrane  permeability Bactericidal  -  produce irreversible  damage  to membrane  permeability Example  =  polymyxins and  colistin Example  =  polymyxins and  colistin Highly  toxic  to  kidneys and  nerves Highly  toxic  to  kidneys and  nerves

Slide12Antifungal drugs Antifungal  drugs Damage  cell  membranes Damage  cell  membranes  Bind  or  interfere  with  ergosterol (unique  fungal  sterol  in membrane)  Bind  or  interfere  with  ergosterol (unique  fungal  sterol  in membrane)  Examples  Examples Polyenes  -  nystatin  and amphotericin  B Polyenes  -  nystatin  and amphotericin  B Imidazoles  -  clotrimazole, miconazole  (topical)  and ketoconazole  (systemic) Imidazoles  -  clotrimazole, miconazole  (topical)  and ketoconazole  (systemic) Inhibition  of  nucleic  acid synthesis Inhibition  of  nucleic  acid synthesis  Griseofulvin  -  interferes  with mitosis;  selectively  binds  to keratin  in  skin,  hair  &  nails; used  primarily  with  fungi classified  as  dermatophytic  Griseofulvin  -  interferes  with mitosis;  selectively  binds  to keratin  in  skin,  hair  &  nails; used  primarily  with  fungi classified  as  dermatophytic  5-fluorocytosine  5-fluorocytosine

Slide13Antiviral drugs Antiviral  drugs Interference  with  uptake  or  uncoating  of  virus  - amantadine  (used  to  prevent  influenza  A) Interference  with  uptake  or  uncoating  of  virus  - amantadine  (used  to  prevent  influenza  A) Inhibition  of  nucleic  acid  synthesis Inhibition  of  nucleic  acid  synthesis Ribavirin  -  effective  in  vitro  against  a  wide  range of  viruses;  highly  toxic Ribavirin  -  effective  in  vitro  against  a  wide  range of  viruses;  highly  toxic Acyclovir  -  Herpes-specific  (genital  herpes,  cold sores,  chickenpox) Acyclovir  -  Herpes-specific  (genital  herpes,  cold sores,  chickenpox) Azidothymidine  (AZT)  -  treatment  of  HIV infections Azidothymidine  (AZT)  -  treatment  of  HIV infections

Slide15Antibiotic resistance  in  bacteria Antibiotic  resistance  in  bacteria Sites  of  resistance Sites  of  resistance Membrane  transport  - LPS  layer  of  G(-) prevent  entry  of  many drugs Membrane  transport  - LPS  layer  of  G(-) prevent  entry  of  many drugs Targets  of antimicrobial  agents (e.g.  ribosomes) Targets  of antimicrobial  agents (e.g.  ribosomes) Presence  of  antibiotic- destroying  enzymes (e.g.  beta  lactamase) Presence  of  antibiotic- destroying  enzymes (e.g.  beta  lactamase)

Slide16Antibiotic resistance  in  bacteria Antibiotic  resistance  in  bacteria Mechanisms  of  changing resistance Mechanisms  of  changing resistance Mutations  -  permanent changes  in  chromosomes; not  caused  by  antibiotics Mutations  -  permanent changes  in  chromosomes; not  caused  by  antibiotics Acquisition  of  new  genetic information  -  methods Acquisition  of  new  genetic information  -  methods Transformation  =  naked DNA Transformation  =  naked DNA Transduction  =  via  viruses Transduction  =  via  viruses Conjugation  =  via  sex  pili (sexual  recombination)  – most  rapid  method Conjugation  =  via  sex  pili (sexual  recombination)  – most  rapid  method Selective  pressures  of antimicrobial  therapy  -  use of  antibiotics  select  for bacteria  that  are  resistant  - sensitive  bacteria  are destroyed Selective  pressures  of antimicrobial  therapy  -  use of  antibiotics  select  for bacteria  that  are  resistant  - sensitive  bacteria  are destroyed

Slide17Antibiotic susceptibility  testing Antibiotic  susceptibility  testing Susceptibility  no  longer  predictable Susceptibility  no  longer  predictable Variables  affecting  outcome  of  therapy Variables  affecting  outcome  of  therapy Condition  of  host  (immune  status  - underlying  diseases) Condition  of  host  (immune  status  - underlying  diseases) Site  of  infection  (can  drugs  get  to  site?) Site  of  infection  (can  drugs  get  to  site?) Properties  of  antimicrobial  agent Properties  of  antimicrobial  agent Other  drugs  taken  concurrently Other  drugs  taken  concurrently Susceptibility  of  organism  to  drug Susceptibility  of  organism  to  drug

Slide18The role  of  antimicrobials  in  disrupting microbial  flora  and  causing  superinfections The  role  of  antimicrobials  in  disrupting microbial  flora  and  causing  superinfections

Slide19Broth dilution  methods  (Minimal  Inhibitory Concentration)  –  Quantitative  Method Broth  dilution  methods  (Minimal  Inhibitory Concentration)  –  Quantitative  Method Procedure Procedure  Uses  decreasing  concentrations  of  antimicrobial  agents prepared  in  2-fold  dilutions  of  broth  that  will  support  growth  of test  organism  Uses  decreasing  concentrations  of  antimicrobial  agents prepared  in  2-fold  dilutions  of  broth  that  will  support  growth  of test  organism  Standard  inoculum  is  added  to  broth  containing  dilutions  of antimicrobial  agent,  incubated  overnight  and  then  examined  for growth  (turbidity)  Standard  inoculum  is  added  to  broth  containing  dilutions  of antimicrobial  agent,  incubated  overnight  and  then  examined  for growth  (turbidity)  Lowest  concentration  of  agent  that  inhibits  growth  as  detected  by lack  of  visible  turbidity  =   Minimal  Inhibitory  Concentration  (MIC)  Lowest  concentration  of  agent  that  inhibits  growth  as  detected  by lack  of  visible  turbidity  =   Minimal  Inhibitory  Concentration  (MIC) Susceptibility  and  resistance  determined  by  break  point of  drug  (highest  conc.  of  drug  in  the  blood  that  can  be achieved  with  maximal  therapy);  if  MIC  is  lower  than breakpoint,  organism  =  susceptible;  if  MIC  is  higher  than breakpoint,  organism  =  resistant Susceptibility  and  resistance  determined  by  break  point of  drug  (highest  conc.  of  drug  in  the  blood  that  can  be achieved  with  maximal  therapy);  if  MIC  is  lower  than breakpoint,  organism  =  susceptible;  if  MIC  is  higher  than breakpoint,  organism  =  resistant

Slide20Minimum Inhibitory  Concentration Minimum  Inhibitory  Concentration

Slide21Disk diffusion  (Kirby/Bauer)  -  Qualitative Disk  diffusion  (Kirby/Bauer)  -  Qualitative Advantage  -  rapid  testing  of  several  antibiotics simultaneously Advantage  -  rapid  testing  of  several  antibiotics simultaneously Uses  antimicrobial  agents  incorporated  into  filter  paper disks  placed  on  agar  media  causing  drug  to  diffuse creating  a  concentration  gradient  (conc.  highest  closest to  disk) Uses  antimicrobial  agents  incorporated  into  filter  paper disks  placed  on  agar  media  causing  drug  to  diffuse creating  a  concentration  gradient  (conc.  highest  closest to  disk) Susceptibility/resistance  determined  by  measuring diameter  of  zone  of  inhibition  around  disk  and  comparing to  established  zones  for  each  antibiotic Susceptibility/resistance  determined  by  measuring diameter  of  zone  of  inhibition  around  disk  and  comparing to  established  zones  for  each  antibiotic Standardization  -  Bauer,  Kirby,  Sherris  &  Turck (correlated  with  MIC’s  using  large  numbers  strains  & regression  analysis) Standardization  -  Bauer,  Kirby,  Sherris  &  Turck (correlated  with  MIC’s  using  large  numbers  strains  & regression  analysis)

Slide22Techniques for  preparation  and interpretation  of  disc  diffusion  tests Techniques  for  preparation  and interpretation  of  disc  diffusion  tests

Slide23Antimicrobial gradient  strip  method  (E test) Antimicrobial  gradient  strip  method  (E test) Disk  diffusion  method  that allows  determination  of  MIC  in agar Disk  diffusion  method  that allows  determination  of  MIC  in agar Consists  of  plastic  strip containing  gradient  of antimicrobial  agent  along  with an  interpretive  scale Consists  of  plastic  strip containing  gradient  of antimicrobial  agent  along  with an  interpretive  scale Performed  similar  to  disk diffusion Performed  similar  to  disk diffusion Organisms  grow  in  elliptical zone  of  inhibition  around  strip relative  to  concentration  of antibiotic  along  its  length Organisms  grow  in  elliptical zone  of  inhibition  around  strip relative  to  concentration  of antibiotic  along  its  length MIC  determined  by  reading scale  at  point  where  zone  of inhibition  intersects  strip MIC  determined  by  reading scale  at  point  where  zone  of inhibition  intersects  strip